II. Inside our schools: What we've learned about time

III. The cultural aspects of time

I. ON THE JOB: FROM TIME CLOCKS TO THE 24/7 ECONOMY

A. THE TIME CLOCK AS TOOL OF PROGRESS
The time clock at work may not be anyone's favorite clock, but it has played an essential role in the economic gains we've seen over the past 150 years. "Industrialization meant eliminating inefficiencies, to make the process of production as systematic as possible," says Jim Cebula, a labor historian and professor of history at UC's Raymond Walters College. "Having a disciplined work force where people come in at a given time is one of those necessary elements. It's a shift of control from under the workman's cap to the front office." As an example, Cebula compares modern industrialization to the brewery of the 1870s, where one brewmaster ran the whole operation, and his crew might work from sunup to sundown with the flexibility to take a long break during the day at the brewmaster's discretion. With the time clock and sophisticated machines, Cebula says, "it's the engineers and the managers who are in control."

B. A "TIME CLOCK" MENTALITY FOR WHITE COLLAR WORKERS
Are white-collar workers under increasing time pressure likely to adopt the same 'time-clock' mentality associated in the past with factory workers? Marianne Lewis, an assistant professor of management at UC's College of Business Administration and an expert on organizations and technology says "Organizational pressures today are so closely linked to time -- the need for speed in production, innovation and marketing -- that 'the clock' is becoming the most dominant symbol at work," Lewis says. "Yet, as a symbol, the clock may assume different meanings for different individuals. There will always be those upstart, aggressive employees who are trying to 'beat the clock,' continuously trying to work harder and faster. Others, however, may choose to 'clock out' and escape growing pressures by setting clear boundaries around work. Such reactions by white collar workers may mirror those traditionally seen in the factory."
Contact: lewimr@email.uc.edu

C. SHOULD THE TIME CLOCK DISAPPEAR?
Ann Welsh, an associate professor of management in UC's College of Business Administration, thinks the idea of a time clock in the modern working environment is one that is past its prime. "You still have places that check in with a time clock, but you have to ask, 'Why?,' If you have to use Draconian measures for control, you're in deep trouble," said Welsh. "It is unclear that those things add any value to the firm, and that's where everyone's attention should be." For the same reason, Welsh says using electronic technology to monitor workers takes away from a company's success.
Contact: 513-556-7136

D. THERE IS NO "LOCAL TIME" IN THE GLOBAL ECONOMY
A global economy means a global time clock for companies, and a new challenge for the new economy. Ann Welsh, an associate professor of management in UC's College of Business Administration, says there really aren't any limits on the work day now. "Technology makes people immediately accessible, whether they like it or not. One of the great consequences of the quality movement as it takes hold is the focus on getting the job done, whatever that means," Welsh says. "No matter what the time is, in a global economy, you are competing against the person who is always working."
Contact: 513-556-7136

E. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF THE TIME CRUNCH
Why does a typical 8-hour work day seem so long to some people and so short to others? University of Cincinnati psychology professor Anthony Grasha says "how fast time flies depends upon how engaged we are with the things we do. With idle time on the job or a job that is not very challenging or engaging we focus more on the clock than on our work. Also, people have different work rhythms. For those who like to work fast and intense on things, any downtime is seen as disruptive." Of course, the shortest part of any work day seems to be our breaks and lunch hours. Grasha says that's perfectly normal from a psychological point of view. "Most people socialize during lunch and breaks. Lunch on the job is a great way to meet one's social needs and needs for recognition and attention. And, if it's a power lunch, then the chance to influence others becomes available." Unfortunately, that's why it can be so difficult to go back to work after lunch. "It's such a high that it's not easy to let go of," explained Grasha.
Contact: 513-556-5543

F. OUR MOST PRODUCTIVE TIMES AT WORK
UC psychologist Anthony Grasha said his research has demonstrated that humans really do have a relatively short attention span. That not only impacts how we learn, but how we do our jobs. "Most people can maintain their avid attention on a task for about 15-20 minutes before they begin to think of other things. It's built into our psychological makeup." Grasha also noted that the concept of "night owls" and "day people" is real. "Some of it's biological, and some of it's learned. Body rhythms are important here." One way to change your day/night status is to use incentives. Grasha said that's why people who work odd hours typically get paid more. That incentive can actually change the way they think and work after dark.
Contact: 513-556-5543

II. INSIDE OUR SCHOOLS: WHAT WE'VE LEARNED ABOUT TIME

A. FINDING TIME TO WORK AND LEARN


The 1998 Head Start Authorization Act requires 50 percent of the staff in each of the nation's Head Start Centers to have a degree in early childhood education by 2003. The mandate poses a real challenge for those who work full-time jobs in rural Head Start centers, far from college campuses. As a result, three University of Cincinnati colleges and RISE Learning Solutions (a nonprofit educational organization in Cincinnati) developed the Early Childhood Learning Community (ECLC), a distance-learning network that can deliver an associate's degree to students in 48 states. Two-thirds of the coursework is carried on satellite television, and the remaining third is accomplished over the Internet.
Contacts: Lisa Holstrom, ECLC coordinator, 513-556-3627
John Bryan, Dean of University College, 513-556-1897

B. TEACHING ABOUT TIME IN A DIGITAL WORLD
Linda Plevyak, assistant professor of early childhood education, says digital clocks haven't completely changed the way children learn about time in school. "Children are seeing analog and digital. They may see that one clock reads 12:45, but they also have to understand that it's 15 minutes till the next hour." However, she said today's teachers are helping kids get a better grasp of a time frame. "We work with children to place time in the frame of the day by putting their routine into context. They have breakfast. Mom or Dad may take them to school. The teacher asks what comes next and how long the activity might last."
Contact: 513-556-5106

C. INCREASING KNOWLEDGE WITHOUT INCREASING TIME IN SCHOOL
Ohio students in kindergarten through 12th grade head to school an average of six-and-one-half hours a day for at least 180 days per school year. The actual time span of the school day has not changed much over the generations, but teachers are using more of their time to emphasize the so-called core curriculum, says Ted Fowler, University of Cincinnati professor of teacher education and associate head of the Cincinnati Initiative for Teacher Education (CITE), UC's nationally recognized teacher training program. "Curricula is being driven by proficiency standards and performance on proficiency testing. As a result, schools are doing away with classes like home economics and art, and music programs have also gone by the wayside. All states except Iowa have these proficiency standards." Fowler says that although teachers are spending more time on courses that support state proficiency standards, they're assigning less homework than the teachers of our youth. Why? More high school students are working. Younger students have more activities, and parents don't have as much time to help.
Contact: 513-556-3583

III. THE CULTURAL ASPECTS OF TIME

A. TIME AND LITERATURE
Time is such a pervasive and crucial element in literature that volumes and volumes on the topic have been written. But without question, a turning point in the way fiction writers presented time came after Einstein's theory of relativity was publicized in 1915. Prior to Einstein's theory, novelists generally wrote stories with a Newtonian view, where time passed progressively or in a linear fashion. After Einstein, University of Cincinnati English Professor Robert Arner says fiction writers such as James Joyce began to experiment with stories in which time became more flexible. Prominent examples include William Faulkner's "The Sound and the Fury" (1929) and "Absalom, Absalom!" (1936), T.S. Elliot's "The Wasteland" (1922), and Ernest Hemingway's "For Whom the Bell Tolls" (1940).

B. THE HISTORY OF COMMUNITY CLOCKS
James Verdin, president of The Verdin Company, the world's largest supplier of bells, carillons and public clocks, says that community clocks on city halls, in town squares or on university campuses were vital to regulating daily life until about 50 years ago. That's because watches were a luxury item. Europe's first community clocks appeared in the 1500s. They were simple faces without sound. Bells were added in the 1700s to serve those who couldn't see the clocks. Musical chimes were first added in England as a means to alert people that the hour would soon be striking. Verdin said, "the Westminster chime was the first with 16 notes that played just before the hour struck. That way people could get ready to count the strokes. If the strokes just rang without the preliminary chimes, you could be unprepared and miscount the strokes."
Contact: 1-800-543-0488, ext. 1020

C. TIMELY INVESTMENTS BY COMMUNITIES
Oddly enough, the universal popularity of today's wristwatch has not doomed community clocks. In fact, business is booming, with community clocks serving as The Verdin Company's fastest-growing product line. Throughout the U.S., small towns and downtowns are focused on renovation and historic preservation, a trend that began with America's bicentennial celebration in 1976. "Before 1976, America's urban areas did not focus on preservation, but that has changed dramatically in the last 25 years. For instance, street clocks which are clocks on poles that were popular in Victorian times, began being revived with the bicentennial. They evoke the simpler, communal life of the 1800s, and they serve as vertical markers, a place to meet," explained company president James Verdin. "For the small town, it's a tool for reviving their centers which have been drained by urban sprawl. New clocks are also in demand in new developments as well, everything from amusement parks to ski resorts. But unlike the historic versions, the newly minted communal clocks are computer-controlled, never requiring winding or resetting."
Contact: 1-800-543-0488, ext. 1020

D. WHAT HAPPENED TO THE WATCHMAKER?
David Hochstrasser, owner of The Clock Shop near Boston, Massachusetts, has repaired tiny centuries-old watches with parts no thicker than a human hair in addition to restoring and maintaining historic clocks such as the ones located in Boston's Custom House Tower, the Old State House and the Old South Meeting House. He even makes clock parts that are no longer available. Hochstrasser stresses that, typically, an old clock can outlast any modern-day version. In Europe, he says, there are mechanical tower clocks that have been running since the 1600s. "Antique clocks are superior to new clocks mechanically. New clocks tend to wear out faster."

He sees little danger that the timepieces of yesterday will wind down and be discarded in the new millennium. "Public clocks are treasured landmarks. Most of our business is repairing or restoring antique clocks for homes. Most of the clocks I repair come with a (family) story. There is a lot of emotion heaped onto these clocks. Some people act as if they are part of the family, and in a way, they are." Unfortunately, time is running out on the careers of many clock restorers. At 37, Hochstrasser is an exception in his beloved profession. He says most clock restorers are close to, or at, retirement age.
Contact:781-545-4559

E. AN INSIGNIFICANT MILLENNIAL MOMENT
Although the Third Millennium doesn't officially begin until Jan. 1, 2001, most of the millennial hype came last year. University of Cincinnati philosopher John Martin advises against taking the timing too seriously, however. Calendars are a convention, not a matter of absolute truth, he said. "It is sort of amusing to see people debating about this, when the people who lived at the time didn't know they were in the year one. People at the time mostly counted in terms of the reigns of rulers, such as the fourth year of Caesar, or the year of the pope...People today date years in a different way from the people that actually lived them did."
Contact: 513-871-3460

E. WHY THOSE HOLIDAY TRIPS SEEM TO TAKE SO LONG
Linda Plevyak, assistant professor of early childhood education, says a child's perception of time is more immediate than that of an adult, which might explain why parents often hear "Are we there yet?" from the back seat of the car, or the constant questions about the countdown to the holidays. Plevyak adds that for children and adults, the perception of time can change, based on the environment. For adults, a one-hour meeting can feel like it took up the entire afternoon. The same goes for the kids in the back seat on your car. "Their perception of an hour in the car is a lot longer than an hour of play. Fortunately, parents are getting more savvy about bringing along activities, but for anyone sitting in one spot for a long period of time, the perception of time changes."
Contact:513-556-5106

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